Open any pharmacoeconomics textbook and you will find a clean explanation of how drug prices are set — cost of production, plus a reasonable margin, regulated fairly across the system. It sounds logical. It also describes almost no country you will actually work in as a pharma professional.
India's drug pricing works differently. And once you understand how, a lot of things about this industry start making sense.
Start here: who is actually paying
In most Western countries that textbooks are written for, patients do not directly pay for their medicines. Insurance companies, government health schemes, or employers cover most of the cost. The patient pays a small fixed amount and moves on.
In India, more than half the population has no comprehensive health insurance. There is no insurer sitting between the patient and the pharmacy counter. The patient walks in, the chemist quotes a price, and the patient pays from their own pocket.
And it is not a small amount. Between 60 and 90 percent of what Indian households spend on healthcare goes entirely on medicines. Not doctors, not hospitals — medicines. This is why drug pricing in India is not just a commercial question. It directly hits household finances.
This is the backdrop against which the government created the DPCO.
What DPCO actually is
DPCO stands for Drug Prices Control Order. It is a government tool, enforced by an authority called the NPPA — the National Pharmaceutical Pricing Authority — that sets price ceilings on essential medicines. Companies cannot legally charge above these ceilings.
The list of medicines covered by DPCO is called the National List of Essential Medicines, or NLEM. If your drug is on this list, your price is capped. If it is not on this list, you can charge whatever the market allows.
How the ceiling price is actually calculated
Before 2013, the NPPA used to calculate price caps the old-fashioned way — tracking the actual cost of raw materials, manufacturing, packaging, and adding a fixed return. Logical on paper. The problem was that companies would inflate their reported production costs to push the ceiling higher. The system was easy to game.
In 2013 the government scrapped that approach entirely and switched to a market-based formula. Instead of tracking costs, the NPPA now looks at what brands are actually selling for in the market. It takes the average retail price of every brand that holds at least a 1% market share for that molecule, then adds 16% on top as the retail margin. That number becomes the ceiling.
The ceiling price is anchored to what the market is already charging — not what it costs to make the drug. If most brands are already expensive, the ceiling will be set at an expensive level. The formula controls the top, it does not necessarily make medicines affordable.
The loopholes nobody mentions in class
Here is what textbooks leave out entirely.
The FDC trick
If Paracetamol 500mg is price-controlled, a company can combine it with another compound — say, a mild decongestant — to create a new combination tablet. If that specific combination is not on the NLEM, it falls outside DPCO completely. The company can now price it freely. This is why you see so many fixed-dose combination drugs — and it is the same logic behind how Dolo 650 disrupted Crocin in the Indian market. Some are clinically justified. Some exist primarily to step around price controls.
The strength swap
A company might quietly stop promoting the controlled 500mg version of a drug and start pushing a 650mg version instead. If the 650mg is not on the NLEM, there is no ceiling on it. Same molecule, slightly different dose, completely different pricing freedom. This is exactly the loophole that Dolo 650 used to disrupt Crocin.
The brand variation nobody talks about
Two brands containing the exact same molecule, same dose, same formulation — one can cost ten times the other. Brand price variations for the same generic molecule in India can range anywhere from 1000% to 4000%. The only thing driving that gap is brand popularity and what doctors are used to prescribing. The medicine inside the strip is identical.
The chemist's real incentive
For drugs that are not on the NLEM — the uncontrolled ones — manufacturers set the MRP themselves. And to get chemists to stock and push their brand, they offer enormous trade margins.
A chemist might buy a strip for ₹10 and sell it to the patient at the printed MRP of ₹150. That margin sits entirely with the retailer — not the manufacturer, not the patient.
This creates a quiet incentive at the pharmacy counter — and it is one of the structural reasons e-pharmacies have been able to offer consistent discounts by cutting out the intermediary margin entirely. When there is any flexibility — when the prescription says the generic name, or when the patient asks for something for a minor ailment — the chemist will often reach for the brand that gives the best margin. Not the cheapest option. Not the most clinically appropriate one. The most profitable one.
This is not illegal. It is just how the economics of the channel work.
What this means for you
If you end up in pharma marketing, pricing strategy is not just about what you charge. It is about whether your drug is on the NLEM, what that means for your ceiling, and how you structure your product portfolio to protect margins within regulatory limits.
If you end up in pharmacy practice, understanding trade margins explains a lot about the recommendations you will see — and be expected to make — at the counter.
Either way, this is the version of drug pricing that actually matters for your career. Not the textbook one.
Quick answers
What is DPCO in India?
DPCO stands for Drug Prices Control Order. It is a government regulation enforced by the NPPA that sets maximum retail price ceilings on essential medicines listed under the NLEM. Companies cannot legally charge above these ceilings for controlled drugs.
What is NLEM?
NLEM is the National List of Essential Medicines — the government's list of drugs considered essential for basic healthcare. Only drugs on this list are subject to DPCO price caps. Drugs not on the NLEM can be priced freely by manufacturers.
How is the drug price ceiling calculated in India?
Since 2013, the NPPA uses a market-based formula. It takes the average retail price of all brands with at least 1% market share for a molecule, adds 16% as the retail margin, and sets that as the ceiling. It is based on what the market already charges, not the cost of manufacturing.
Why do the same drugs cost different amounts at different pharmacies?
For drugs not under DPCO price control, manufacturers set their own MRP and offer varying trade margins to chemists. A chemist has a financial incentive to recommend the brand with the highest margin — which is not always the cheapest or most appropriate option for the patient.
What is the FDC loophole in Indian drug pricing?
Fixed-dose combinations (FDCs) combine two or more molecules into one tablet. If the combination is not listed on the NLEM, it falls outside DPCO price control even if its individual ingredients are controlled. Some companies use this to market slightly modified combinations at unregulated prices.
- Chaudhuri, S. (2015). Pharmaceutical Prices in India. In Babar, Z.U.D. (Eds.), Pharmaceutical Prices in the 21st Century. Adis, Cham. DOI
- Atal, S., Atal, S., Deshmankar, B., & Nawaz, S. A. (2016). Cost analysis of commonly used drugs under price control in India: Assessing the effect of drug price control order on brand price variation. International Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 8(4), 315–321.
- Motkuri, V., & Mishra, R. N. (2020). Pharmaceutical market and drug price policy in India. Review of Development and Change, 25(1), 30–53.
- Ahmad, A., Khan, M. U., & Patel, I. (2015). Drug pricing policies in one of the largest drug manufacturing nations in the world: are affordability and access a cause for concern? Journal of Research in Pharmacy Practice, 4(1), 1–3. DOI
If this was useful, the next piece worth reading is on FMCG vs pharma marketing — which covers why the commercial logic of pharma is so different from every other consumer industry.